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 .The story of beer is ancient and intricately woven with the fabric of civilisation. It has matched the progression, advancement and movement of mankind across the globe.
Charting beer’s history is an undertaking of herculean proportions. Fortunately some historians have dedicated their lives to this pursuit. We stand on the shoulders of academic giants and for this we are thankful.
Here’s an insanely short yet bold attempt to share some of it with you. We will be adding to this as time goes on – so do revisit when you can!Could beer be the reason we are somewhat civilised... really?
The Gods of Beer
Prehistory and the Discovery of Beer
Beer in China
The Sumerians and Sikaru
The Babylonian Law Makers
Before the Incas were the Tiwanaku
Egyptian Hek
The Greek Seafarers
The Roman Conquests
Early German Brewmasters
Early British Brewmasters
Völkerwanderung & The Dark Ages
Middle Ages
Monastic Brewing
Hops enter the picture
Beer Since the 1800s
British Brewers and the Age of the Porter, Stout and Pale AleThe Lager Revolution – The Monks, Brewers & Scientists of Bavaria and Copenhagen
Beer in the last 100 years – a global perspectiveBeerliography
Could beer be the reason we are somewhat civilised... really?Beer may have played an essential role in the adoption of agriculture, paving the way for the emergence of civilisation.
The fundamental question -- what caused us to stop our nomadic, hunter gather ways of the past 7 million years or so and suddenly put down roots and become farmers? There are multiple theories but our favourite to date...
“Once beer was discovered and its consumption had become socially and ritually important, there was greater desire to ensure the availability of grain by deliberate farming, rather than relying on wild grains. Farming was, according to this view, adopted partly in order to maintain the supply of beer.”“Such a beer would have had relatively low alcohol content by modern standards but would have been rich in suspended yeast, which dramatically improved its vitamin and protein content. The high level of Vitamin B in particular, would have compensated for the decline in the consumption of meat, as hunting gave way to farming.”
“Since it was made using boiled water beer was safer to drink than water, which quickly became contaminated with human waste in even the smaller settlements... beer helped to make up for the decline in food quality as people took up farming, provided a safe form of liquid nourishment and gave groups of beer-drinking farmers a comparative nutritional advantage over non beer drinkers.” (1)
There were other contributing factors and this view is supposedly controversial. It’s our favourite, so we are sticking with it!
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The Gods of BeerNo single culture can honestly be credited with beer’s discovery. It has developed in some form or another in multiple regions. The fact that most civilisations of the northern and southern hemisphere, east and west have evidence of beer gods or deities leads us to a pretty simple conclusion. Wherever grain gathering human civilisation flourished thus did fermentation and our ability to harness it and perceive it as a gift from the Gods.
Here is a short list of some beer related deities.
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Aegir/Gymir
(Norse) |
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Byggvir
(Norse) |
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Mbaba Mwana
Waresa
(Zulu) |
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Ninkasi
(Sumerians)
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Osiris
(Egyptians)
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Hathor
(Egyptian) |
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Silenus
(Greeks)
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Mayahuel
(Aztecs)
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Thor
(Pagan Germania,
Norse) |
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Radegast
(Czech) |
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Raugutiene
(Baltic/Slavic)
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Siduri (Babylonian) |
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Yasigi
(African) |
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Prehistory and the Discovery of BeerThe discovery of beer was surely unavoidable and most likely occurred closely following the last Ice Age, when wild grains were in abundance and thrifty nomadic tribes started to gather and store them (particularly in the Fertile Crescent – modern day Egypt, Iran and Iraq).
The storage of these grains most likely resulted in two happy events. Firstly, water tight containers were relatively non-existent, leading to the discovery that grain steeped in water causes it to sprout and sweeten. Thus early mankind develops a taste for green malt and then goes on to figuring out ways to dry and preserve these improved, and by modern definition, processed grains.
Secondly, gruel (soup of mashed, crushed or powdered cereal grain) left sitting around unattended for a few days by some lazy chap miraculously turned into a fizzy and joyously intoxicating liquid, made even tastier by the use of malted grains. There you have it ladies and gentlemen – we give you beer!
Would the Ancients have understood the magical, microbial fermentation that took place? By the age of the Sumerians it would seem that the penny had dropped with brewers retaining sediment in mash tubs for reuse. While they did not have the microscopes or the scientific language to describe the process, by observation, desire and ultimately design they were able to harness the natural characteristics of yeast.
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Beer in ChinaArchaeological finds in the Henan Province, Central China, indicate they were brewing beer as early as 7000BC.
Throughout China’s recorded history beer made from millet and rice was used in funerals and other religious ceremonies, offered to win the favour of the deceased and one’s ancestors. China’s history is rich with cultural references to the consumption and use of wine – a common translation. However, scholars now believe this wine was more likely millet and rice ale as there are no records of grape cultivation. (4)
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The Sumerians and Sikaru The Sumerians of Mesopotamia, one of the oldest known literate civilisations, have left us clear evidence of their production of beer and its cultural importance. Clay tablets exist that clearly detail their methods and knowledge of beer as a gift from the Goddess Ninkasi.
There are also drawings of beer being shared from large pots via straws. Beer shared in this way was likely a demonstration of communal trust and possibly an affirmation of a relationship.
The earliest written records of mankind are Sumerian tax and wage lists – in which there is a dedicated symbol for beer. What more evidence do you need? Well, there are also lists of the medicinal use of beer.
The recipe for Sumerian Sikaru beer details how the Sumerians moistened and germinated cereal seeds (including emmer wheat/spelt and barley), ground and baked small cakes that were then crumbled into pots of water and left to ferment. They used dates and honey to flavour the drink. Truly, liquid bread. (7)
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The Babylonian Law Makers  In the Babylonian Empire, later rulers of Mesopotamia, the female priestesses were brewers and their Goddesses the patrons of a beer that was revered as an important spiritual sacrament.
Its regulation and control by the State was recorded in Hammurabi’s Law Code - the oldest code of law on record (1792 BC).
Surely, the fact the punishment for short changing a punter on strength or volume was death by drowning indicates beer’s social importance to the stability of a nation.
go to topBefore the Incas were the Tiwanaku Andean historians recognise Tiwanaku as the most important, fore-running civilisation to the famous Incan Empire. It arose circa 1200BC on the south-eastern shore of Lake Titicaca and historians propose the reason for its formation as a society was a single minded mania for Maize beer or Chicha. (5)
The society was formed and centralised around its production – known as the ‘Chicha’ economy. The consumption of Maize beer continued into the Incan and later Aztec civilisations of the region. (6)
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Egyptian Hek  Beer was a refreshment, food source and currency. It was a sacrament, regulated and taxed. The God Osiris was to have taught the Egyptians the art of beer.
It was more popular than water, which was often contaminated. Originally thought to have been brewed solely from bread steeped in water, in 1996 suggestion was raised of a process more similar to today’s methods. Identified and recreated by Cambridge scientists, it is said to have been very rich, very malty and slightly reminiscent of chardonnay.
There is also evidence of the first beer brands, with names from differing areas and brewers emerging, such as Joy Bringer, Heavenly and Beautiful. Egyptians enjoyed their beer in ceramic cups sipped through a straw. By the New Kingdom there are 23 different types of beer on record.
Bread and beer goes hand in hand as the power source for this sophisticated and powerful nation. A popular greeting and well wish being; beer and bread. Taverns were an essential daily part of Egyptian culture and beer was a source of entertainment and inebriation.
Some Egyptian toasts are on record. Our favourite; here’s to your ghost. A most likely reference to the belief that well-being in one’s afterlife relied on an adequate supply of bread and beer.
The Egyptians hold the dubious honour as being the first known civilisation to attempt prohibition. Egyptian beer (known as hek) was so popular and the density of Hek shops so numerous, authorities did try to close them down and prohibit its consumption – to no avail. (12)
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The Greek SeafarersIn Ancient Greek mythology, the bald, hairy tubby guy with the beer belly and intoxicated grin is the God of beer, Silenus. The Ancient Greeks deemed beer as a beverage less worthy than mead.
On the flipside, Plato is quoted with saying “He was a wise man who invented beer.” So the perception could not have been all bad, surely?
They brewed a beer named Zythos and many of the populace and the army imbibed. It is said the Egyptians introduced brewing to the Greeks, whose sailors then introduced it to the Romans and northern Europe.
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The Roman ConquestsSo, the shorthand is: the Romans conquer the ‘known’ world, elevate wine to high culture status and classify beer as the lowly drink of their barbaric, arch enemies – the Teutonic forest dwellers of Germania.
Yes, finally we get to these Iron Age Brew masters and the forerunners to German and British beer that we know and love. We have the Romans to thank, among other things, for introducing these ale loving barbarians into the pages of European written history (these early German’s lack of the written word required it.)
Still, despite their prejudices, the Roman’s did recognise the value of beer as a potable, transportable hydration source that pleased its troops. Its legions happily marched it and on it, into Northern Europe. There is archaeological evidence that the Roman auxiliaries in Britain had a strong liking for beer (that they were primarily made up of Bavarian/Tungrian soldiers makes this a little unsurprising!)
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Early German BrewmastersLittle wonder the Germans are famous for their beers. History tells us their Teutonic barbaric ancestors were brewing a combination of wheat and barley beers as early as 1000BC.
In central and northern Europe there dwelled a combination of Germanic and Celtish tribes. In this part of the world grapes floundered whereas wheat and barley thrived and ales reigned supreme. As an aside the Celtish contingent of this less than happy troupe eventually dispersed to the British Isles and lucky for us got working on the British ales that we enjoy today.
Foremost authority, author and consultant to the German Beer Institute, Horst Dornbusch beautifully articulates the cultural importance of beer to the early Germans: ‘Though far behind in penmanship, compared to Mediterranean contemporaries, the European pagans were clearly at the top of the class in brewmanship. They thought the sky was a giant brew kettle, where Thor, the god of thunder, was the brewmaster. When he noisily cleaned and polished his kettle, there were lightning bolts, and when he boiled his wort, there were clouds. There is no doubt that, at least by about 800BC the European forest dwellers had learned to make on earth what they believed Thor made in the sky.”*
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Early British BrewmastersAle was introduced to the British Isles just ahead of the Roman Conquerors who would annex the region to its Empire for the next 400 years.
Its consumption was largely confined to the Anglo-Saxons (the former Angles, Jutes and Saxon nomadic tribes of Germania that had settled in the South East.) The main drink was barley ale, consumed communally and in great quantity.
There was also a strict hierarchy for these early British drinking sessions. In large gatherings the most important and successful man in wealth, warfare and nobility sat in the centre. The host of the gathering sat beside him with the others then following this in order of merit. Shield men stood behind them and spear men sat in a circle on the other side (Seriously, would you want to turn your back on a man with spear?)
Two kinds of beer were served; a wheat beer prepared with honey and a barley ale which was sometimes flavoured with cumin. Prior to this, the Ancient Britons were most likely wild honey mead and crab apple cider drinkers. There is evidence of ale reaching Ireland by AD 430 – with mention in the law book Senchus Mor that an Irish Chief was expected to have in house casks of salt, malt, charcoal, ale and milk. In Wales, ale was considered a luxury of the nobility and mead the drink of the commoners both before and after the Roman invasion. There is little evidence of Ales in Scotland during the time of the Romans (who contentedly sat behind Hadrian’s Wall and allowed the Scot’s to do whatever it was that the Scot’s did! So there is little wonder it does not figure in our history books.)
The early Brits interaction with their aleloving Viking, Scandinavian neighbours (and sometime enemies) no doubt saw an exchange of knowledge and brewing practice. The invasion of the wine drinking Normans of 1066AD ale passionately reinforced Ale as a drink of the commoners, with the like of Robin Hood and his fellow conquered Saxons snubbing the consumption of wine.
The brewing of ale was still the responsibility of the woman and a female’s brewing ability was to said to stand in her favour in the marriage stakes. Old ale was even fed to pigs – apparently to give their bacon an improved flavour, yet was most likely started due to a wish to not waste food.
The Anglo- Saxon religion was full of drinking – with an afterlife filled with copious amounts of ale. Even when they were converted to Christianity – they retained this ingrained love and fierce ale drinking tradition. Like its European counterparts ale was taxed and was a method of paying rents or debts and monks came to be keen brewers. By the 800s, small close knit communities would have a brewer, who would reside on the outskirts of town with his wife and family and became as important to life as the butcher, baker and candlestick maker. The house would feature a branch above the door that alerted people that ‘ale was within’. Members of these communities and travellers would recognise the sign and began to congregate. And the great English tradition of the pub was created! (12)
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Völkerwanderung & The Dark AgesThe mass migrations, otherwise known as the Barbarian Invasions, of the Goths, Vandals, Franks, Iranian and Slavic tribes radically change the ethnic make-up of Europe and continued the exchange of production methods and may have spread the use of Hops in beer.
There is also argument that it started to displace wine drinking throughout the Roman Empire. During the Dark Ages, it seems that beer was mostly a household chore. Like the Age – our understanding of beer in this time is dark. We are working on it and will update this as soon as we know more!
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Middle Ages The Middle Ages or Medieval Period starts with the decline of the Roman Empire circa 500 and ends at the beginning of the 1500s. It is divided into the Early, High and Late Middle Ages.
As this period of history covers multiple European nationalities, the history of beer within this time frame is immense. Generally across the board, beer becomes a daily necessity, a part of everyday life, a drink for everyone of every age or status, a beverage for all times of the day from breakfast, to dinner and into the evening (8).
It had the capacity to soothe troubled populations and its absence could cause riots.  Imagine if you will vast monastery breweries, ambitious Kings, tavern wenches, Knights and maidens, castles, sieges and epic battles, the rise and rise of Christianity and the Crusades, the plagues and the torture of beer witches.
This Age marks several important transitions for beer. Brewing shifts from home brewing to centralised production in monasteries and convents, beer is used for tithing by feudal lords, trading and payment of wages, hops become entrenched as a key ingredient. By the High period it becomes a merchantable commercial exercise, monks are laying the foundations for the future of Lager and Brewers Guilds are created. (8)
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Monastic Brewing The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of Christianity and monasticism - basically the religious practice in which one renounces worldy pursuits in order to fully devote one's life to spiritual work.
The monks’ interest in beer and their resulting improvements to production methods and taste was largely due to their basic, spiritual need for a good tasting and nutritional drink to accompany their fasting and frugal meals. They brewed for themselves, travelling pilgrims and for the poor.
Nearly every major monastery in medieval Europe contained a brewery that served the drinking needs of the surrounding villages (perhaps even as an inducement to attend mass.)
Monasteries were unique in that they had the grain surplus of the quantity required for commercial brewing, the cash to build the brewery and an instant labour force. The monks were eventually recognised as ‘the’ brew masters and also capable of imbibing large quantities.
 A legendary saying for someone who was routinely inebriated was “he drinks like a Templar” – a reference to the Templar order of monks that were renowned for their vast consumption and toughness.
The Monasteries were the hub of academic life, observation and scientific assessment.
They also enjoyed frequent interactions amongst the brothers. Thus they applied academic process, written recording of recipes and the exchange of ideas and processes amongst themselves. The monasteries made great advances in the quality and production of beer.
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Hops enter the picture Hops first appear to be commercially cultivated from as early as 800 AD, but there is no clear evidence that the cultivation was specifically for beer.
Earlier societies were aware of hops and there is evidence of a strong drink made from Hops produced by the Jewish captives in Babylonia – their belief that it cured leprosy.
The Romans observed it and named it Humulus Lupulus (Wolf of the Wood – as it was said to be as destructive to the oaks it grew around as a wolf was to a sheep).
Prior to hops, ale was made with herbs such as rosemary and yarrow in England and bags of mixed herb called Gruit in Germany and Scandinavia.
The discovery of the power of hops was likely the result of its inclusion as ‘just another herb’ to add to the brew. Hops transformed brewing and played a large role in the appeal of brewing as a commercial exercise.
Hops’ entrenchment as a key ingredient in beer is well and truly established by the end of the Medieval period. No doubt the rise in popularity of the use of hops was driven by taste, aesthetics and economics.  Beer no longer depended on high alcohol levels for preservation, hops were probably cheap to procure and light to transport, brewers now needed less grain – more profits equals happy days.
Hops preservative and antiseptic qualities aside, it provided the additional benefits of bittering to balance the taste, clarifying the wort and producing a good head.
By the 1300s, brewing as a commercial enterprise is firmly established. The advent and broad acceptance of hopped beers, which were superior in quality, durability and mobility, made it possible for the long term growth of the brewing industry and a gradual erosion of the wine market in former wine drinking territories.
The use of hops in German beer was enforced under the Reinheitsgebot of 1516 (German Purity Law.) At the same time the Dutch who were greatly enamoured with highly hopped beers and credited with introducing it to the British when King Henry VIII invited Flemish weavers to settle. The British were initially a little horrified at the thought but eventually come around by the end of the 1500s.
Today, beer just wouldn’t be beer without hops and there could be more to that saying than meets the eye. Today, we use the word beer as a generic term that covers a range of styles. However, in medieval Europe beer was the name given to ale with the addition of hops.
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Beer Since the 1800s The history of beer is an exercise in tradition, government intervention and control, passionate and patriotic consumption, the sharing of technology and ideas, the cultural and economic exchange of nations and at the end of the day, the beverage that more humans over more millennia have consumed.
Reviewing the history of beer from the 1800s requires a closer look at the scientific, economic and foreign affairs of the industrialised world. It requires a revisit of Europe and its colonies and empires.
We see the final and telling separation from our old agrarian and early commercial societies to the decisive rise of the multinational corporation. Mass urbanisation, mass production and mass communication are prominent in the history of beer for this period.
Occupations, disposable incomes and the nature of consumers change and thus do our food supplies and our modes of leisure.
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British Brewers and the Age of the Porter, Stout and Pale Ale
The British must be credited for their vast contribution to the development of beer and the refinement of brewing.
While the Germans are often lauded as the brewmasters of Europe, the brewers of Burton-on-Trent and the British Isles must not be overlooked. There contribution so vast that it is listed here in dot point!
• The enzymatic contribution of malt and the action of yeast in fermentation is further understood.• Thermometers and hydrometers are used to measure temperature and sugars in the wort.• Cast-iron mash tuns replace wooden vessels.• Mash tuns are stirred by steam driven rakes.• Coppers turn from open pans to domed vessels to retain heat and aromas.• Scottish brewers develop sparging, allowing the production of a new brew every few hours.• Open coolers replaced by closed heat exchangers (cold water running through pipes to more quickly reduce the temperature of a wort prior to fermentation).• Wort is no longer left open to the air and the possibility of contamination by wild yeasts.• They replace coke for coal in malt production and produce a paler malt free from noxious gas and taste and with higher levels of enzymes and sugars.• The ‘union system’ is invented whereby fermentation would drive the liquid and yeast out of casks and up pipes into waiting troughs above and then return to the cask – leaving the yeast behind and the beer filtered.• 19th Century Pale Ale becomes Europe’s dominant beer.• Modern methods of transport are adopted and beer increasingly exported.
Porters were the beers that fuelled the labour force of the Industrial Revolution. Savvy London brewers who were tired of handing over profits to their country cousins for the purchase of stale and brown beer to make Three Threads were hurriedly looking for a replacement.
Three Threads was the popular beer of the time and was a combination of pale, stale and brown ale. It eventually resulted in the creation of an ale known as the Entire Butt. (Entire Butt meant a whole cask.) It appealed to the drinkers for its affordability and similar taste to Three Threads. As it came as an entire butt (or cask) the publican did not have to mix or store three different casks in his cellar, making him a highly motivated salesman. It eventually came to be known as Porter.
Stout beer was not originally a style per se, but simply was the term used for a brewer’s strongest beer – stout beer. The stout’s that we know and love today are the remnants ‘stout porters.’ It was not until the decline of the consumption of Porters that these rich, bitter and dark beers developed into a style of their own making. So popular were these strong and thick, highly hopped ales that they were exported to the Baltic in large volumes – with the Russian Imperial Stout emerging as a style.
The huge demand for Porters outstripped supply. This motivated the capital markets and larger enterprises to enter the brewing business and invest heavily into more profitable and scientific methods of production. The industry boomed.
When it comes to Pale Ales, the Thames water supply of the Burton-on-Trent brewers may have been the original impetus behind their success, being high in salts and producing ales with a sparkling and deeply refreshing flavour - a style that was uniquely suited to the use of the new, paler malts.
It is also said that the Burton-on-Trent yeast strain was also a major contributor – having morphed into a sugar hungry beastie due to the ‘union system’ method of production. The mass production of glass and its use in pubs also increased the appeal for the golden sparkling ales. English Pales Ales were exported around the world – the Indian Pale Ale is the prime example.
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The Lager Revolution – The Monks, Brewers & Scientists of Bavaria and CopenhagenTo explain the emergence of Lager one must first consider the history of yeast. While beer is conceded as most likely the world’s oldest alcoholic beverage, yeast can be considered man’s oldest industrial microorganism.
Overtime, the brewers of Antiquity came to understand the concept of a starter culture and the importance of retaining sediment from batch to batch. Through this process and selection, where better, stronger or more appetising sediments were retained, the Ale yeast emerged.
The Ale yeast’s key characteristics are its fermentation at 10-25C and its habit of floating to the top during fermentation. In the 1400s, when the world was happily brewing top-fermenting Ales, the Benedictine monks of Bavaria made some changes to their storage methods and changed the course of beer forever.
The Benedictine’s requirement for self sufficiency and desire to have beer all year round led them to dig cellars deep into the Alps in the hope of preserving their beer. Brewing could not take place in summer and was eventually outlawed in the 1600s due to spoilage and bad beer. Whether by spontaneous mutation or hybridisation, batches of their stored beer were changing.
The monks found that some of the beer that they kept in their ice caves fermented slowly and the yeast sank to the bottom. This beer was largely free from bacterial infection due to the cold and alcohol. It had the characteristics floral aromas of an ale with a sharper, crisper finish.
Slowly but surely, the monasteries were laying the foundations for the future of Lager. Today’s German style Altbier, is a replica of these Ales that undergo a long, cold fermentation.
The Lager style and its dominance of the European beer drinking markets does not really take hold until the 1830s with the Industrial Revolution in full swing and the market for beers made with pale malts consistently growing. It was originally known as Bavarian Beer and Europe clamoured for these cold fermented beers.
The commercial brewers of Bavaria dug deep pits under their brewers and packed them with ice blocks, the bottom working yeasts were carefully stored and reused from batch to batch. However it was not all immediate success and high profits. Although there was a market for the style, brewing was still unreliable. Sometimes entire batches would not ferment and need to be thrown out. They also did still tend to sour in the warmer months. It was a frustrating and expensive exercise for commercial brewers that needed a resolutionshould their industry be viable.
It was with the work of Emil Christian Hansen at the Carlsberg Brewery in Copenhagen in 1883 that really gave Lager the shot in the arm on its march to global dominance. Louis Pasteur’s early work in relation to brewing had already made great advances – whereby he identified yeast and studied its role in the brewing process and proposed the use of tartaric acid as a method of destroying the contaminates.
Hansen applauded yet questioned Pasteur and built on the body of work for his employer. As it turns out, there were multiple strains of yeast at work that was causing the problems, the cultures were contaminated. He was able to identify, isolate and culture a pure Lager yeast strain, now known as Saccharomyces carlsbergenis (Carslberg sugar fungus.)
The Carslbery Brewery shared its achievement and its yeast culture with the larger brewing community. Lager was well on its way. Lager is German for store and refers to this original, long and slow, ice-cave fermentation. (10)
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Beer in the last 100 years – a global perspectiveA history of the world of beer over the last 100 years coming soon...
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BEERLIOGRAPHYNumbers refer to direct quotes.
(1)(2) (3)Standage, Tom. A History of the World in 6 Glasses. New York: Walker Publishing 2005
(4) (5) (6) Bray, Tamara (Ed.). The Archaeology and Politics of Food and Feasting in Early States and Empires. New York: Plenum Publishers.
(7) Glover, Brian. The World Encyclopaedia of Beer. London:Anness Publishing Limited 1997
Boulton, Chris; Quain, David. Brewing Yeast & Fermentation. London; Blackwell Science Ltd 2001
Alcock, Joan. Food in the Ancient World. Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006.
(8) Unger, Richard. Beer in the Middle Ages and Renaissance Philadelphia; University of Pennsylvania Press 2004
(10) Protz, Roger. The Taste of Beer. London; Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1998.
(9) Ogle, Maureen, Ambitious Brew – The Story of American Beer. Florida: Harcourt Books 2006
(11) Dornbusch, Horst *Prost! The Story of German Beer. Brewer’s Publications 1997.
(12) Watney, John. Beer is Best. London: Peter Owen Limited, 1974
Clark, Christine. The British Malting Industry Since 1830. London; Hambledon Press. 1988
Wilson, R.G and Gourvish T.R. (ed) The Dynamics of the International Brewing Industry sine 1800. London; Rutlegde, 1988.
King, Frank. Beer has a History. London; Hutchison Scientific and Technical Publications. 1947.
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